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Tiôtj
Tiôtj (pronounced tjo:tʃ) is an artificial language that user Llyn created few months ago (and he's still creating and improving it). He was inspired by another artificial language that supposed a different evolution of Anglo-Saxon, so he tried to imagine "his own" evolution of Old English. In this evolution Latin influence was scarce at all, while one can appreciate a little Scandinavian influence in the writing system and some borrowings. The term "tiôtj" comes from Old English "þéodisc", that is an adjective that means "of our people". Classification Tiôtj is a Germanic language that is strongly linked to Modern English. This is due to the fact that both English (naturally) and Tiôtj (artificially and a posteriori) descend from Old English. While English has undergone a strong Latin influence, the same influence on Tiôtj has been very very weak. It can be appreciated the influence of Scandinavian languages on the writing system and just the influence of a language as Welsh in the use of the letter to represent the long vowel u:. Phonology Alphabet Tiôtj alphabet uses letters from Latin alphabet and contains 26 characters: Diphthongs, digraphs and trigraphs Tiôtj has got also twenty-one diphthongs, that is clusters of two vowels pronounced with a single emission of air. These diphthongs are: All these diphthongs can have a short or a long vowel in combination with ɪ or ʊ, except for the diphthong . Some times one can find these diphthongs written with i'' and not with ''j, this happens mostly when the diphthong is in internal position. Tiôtj has got two digraphs too: , that is pronounced as ʃ, and , that is pronounced as tʃ. Also a trigraph exists: that is pronounced ʃ (so and have got the same pronounciation). Even if in the alphabet scheme and have not been considered as distinct letters, in dictionaries they are used as out-and-out letters. The question of the dj digraph In some dialectal pronounciations when the letters and come together, they are pronounced dʒ just as they were a digraph and the voiced counterpart of . Although this way of pronouncing is considered incorrect, the pronounciation dʒo:r for djo:r to say 'djôr" (animal) is becoming commoner and commoner. The accent The position of the accent in this language is quite regular, because the stress falls on the root and thus there are few rules to observe: 1) In substantives (and in adjectives and adverbs) the stress falls on the first syllable, even if they are compound nouns formed by prefix + noun/adjective, ex.: lêrstôf (school) is read 'le:rsto:f, though it is formed by lêr-'' (prefix) + ''stôf (= place); 2) In verbs the stress falls on the first syllable, but if they are compund verbs formed by prefix + noun, the stress falls on the root, that is after the prefix, ex.: yvatjan (to wake up) is read i:'vatʃan, though it is formed by y-'' (prefix) + ''vatjan (= to wake). Grammar Nouns, gender and number Tiôtj language has got only two genders: common gender (or uter gender) and neuter gender. The previously masculine and feminine words have merged into the uter gender, whereas neuter words have remained neuter, even if in some cases there has been a gender switch. Nouns can be both singular (denoting just one object) and plural (denoting more than one object). The formation of plural is not always so simple, because there are four ways to form it: 1) Some uter nouns take ''-es'' suffix, the in this suffix is generally not pronounced; 2) some uter nouns take ''-(e)n'' suffix; 3) some uter nouns take no suffix, some of these undergo a root vowel change too; 4) neuter nouns take no suffix, that is singular and plural forms are identical. Generally uter nouns ending in ''-ing'' or consonant have the first kind of plural, whereas uter nouns ending in ''-e'' have the second kind of plural. Some monosyllabic uter nouns ending in consonant experiment a root vowel modification, but they are just few. Endly some uter words have got two kinds of plural: a regular one (in ''-es'' or ''-en'') and an irregular one (with no ending at all or/and a root vowel change). A list of 37 nouns with their plural form and meaning Here is a list of 37 words of both genders with their plural form, their gender and their meaning: The nouns ending in -nd are present participles and have two kinds of plural: 1) -es plural, that is quite spread; 2) zero plural, that is quite literary. Though the nouns in -jônd have got both an -es plural and a zero plural with a vowel change from -jô- to -y-. In this case the second form is the most spread. The nouns ending in vowel + f lose final f when forming plural form. Formation of feminine Distinguishing between nouns that indicate a feminine being and those that indicate a masculine being can be very difficult in a language that has a common gender for both masculine and feminine. However distinguishing is not always so difficult as one could think, because tiôtj language has a suffix with that the feminine form of a noun can be formed: -estre (pl. -estren). Usually this suffix causes no changes in root, but some times it is used with a modified root: *frjâ (lord) - frjâstre (lady); *lêrend (teacher) - lêrendstre (female teacher); *frjônd (friend) - fryndstre (female friend); *vjônd (enemy) - vyndstre (female enemy); *lynd (lover) - lyndstre (female lover). Articles Two kinds of article exist in tiôtj: indefinite and definite article. The indefinite article has got no plural form and the singular one is the same for all the genders: ân. This article is used to talk about things, facts, beings that are introduces for the first time into the conversation, that is we use the indefinite article to talk about new and not known informations, to talk about undetermined informations. The definite article is used to talk about well known things, facts, beings instead. These informations are familiar to the speakers, because they are already talking about them, or because they belong to the experiences baggage of the speakers, that is we user the definite article to tal about known informations, to talk about determined informations. Even if tiôtj has lost nouns inflection, the definite article has three cases, in addition to the plural forms: The nominative case refers to the subject of a sentence; the accusative case, that is identical to the nominative, refers to the object of a sentence or to the complements that indicate movement; the genitive case refers to possession and the dative case refers to the addressee or to the complements that indicate state. The plural forms are the same for both uter and neuter gender. Often it is sufficient to use this inflection to express syntactic functions of the elements of a sentence or a phrase, es.: Se sprâtj tes mann - The language of the man Jef het têm frjâstre - Give it to the lady Adjectives The adjectives generally precede the noun to whom they refer, but in some case they follow the noun. In tiôtj the adjectives have two different forms: one for the singular (without ending) and one for the plural (with ''-e'' ending). Moreover the form ending in ''-e'' is used for both singular and plural when the nouns to whom the adjective refers is preceded by a determiner, that is a possessive, a demonstrative or the definite article, this form of the adjective is called weak form. If the substantive is not preceded by a determinant (remember that the indefinite article is not a determinant), than it is used the adjective without ending for the singular and that with ''-e'' ending for the plural, this form is called strong form. Adjectives in predicative position, that is after a verb, are never inflected. Here is a list of adjectives with the two forms: Ex.: ân litel katt - A little cat but se lille katt - The little cat. Formation of comparative The higher degree comparative is formed with the suffix ''-ar'' (some irregular adjectives form it with ''-er''). The second term of comparation is introduced by tonn and is in the same case of the first, ex.: ân blôssne sjênar tonn ân trjô - A flower more beautiful than a tree. The same degree comparative is formed with the periphrasis sâ + adjective + tonn, ex.: ân blôssne sâ sjên tonn ân trjô - A flower as beautiful as a tree. The lower degree comparative is formed with the periphrasis lass + adjective + tonn, ex.: ân blôssne lass sjên tonn ân trjô - A flower less beautiful than a tree. Adjectives with an irregular higher degree comparative Some adjectives have got an irregular form of higher degree comparative: Irregular higher degree comparatives are used as normal comparatives, ex.: Tw jart hyr tonn y - You are taller than I. Formation of superlative The superlative degree is formed with the suffix ''-ast'' (some irregular adjectives form it with ''-est''). The relative superlative is the same form of the absolute superlative, but it is preceded by the definite article and is generally followed by a limitation, that is expressed with in + dative case, ex.: se sjênast blôssne in têm vêrl - The most beautiful flower in the world. Adjectives with an irregular superlative Numerals 0-100 It could be interesting to observe numerals: Units are written linked to the tens with a hyphen, while tens and hundreds are written detached, ex.: 195 hwdre neinti-vy. Numerals don't inflect, they don't have a weak nor a strong form. Pronouns and kinds of adjectives Personal pronouns In tiôtj personal pronouns inflect according the four cases that have been seen for the definite article: nominative, genitive, dative and accusative. In a sentence the pronouns in dative case are positioned before of those in accusative case, so prepositions could be omitted, ex.: jef mê het > Give it to me. When there are a pronoun and a noun, the pronoun always precedes the noun, ex.: jef het têm frjâstre > Give it to the lady; jef hir se hwnn > Give her the dog. Demonstratives Demonstratives are formed with the three place adverbs hêr (here, "near to the speaker"), têr (there, but in tiôtj meaning "near to the listener") and jon (yon, but in tiôtj meaning "far from both speaker and listener"). These pronouns match perfectly the three persons: If a noun is inserted between the definite article and the adverb, the demonstrative functions as an adjective, ex.: se hêr - This one (here) but se katt hêr - This cat (here). As the place adverbs inflect, even the demonstratives "inflect". In fact the place adverbs take three kind of suffix to show if the indicate state, movement towards or movement from a definite place. So it is possible, with verbs denoting movement or state, to indicate this aspect with the demonstrative: This use of the demonstrative allows us not to use prepositions, ex.: Y jom têm hws hêr means just "I'm in this house" and there's no need to use the preposition "in"; Y cume têm hws têns means just "I come from that house" without using "af" (= from); Y gâ tat hws jonner means "I go to that house over there" without using "tô" (= to). But it is true that these three sentences show a particularly refined language, colloquially speaking, these sentences become: Y jom in têm hws hêr; Y cume af têm hws têr; Y gâ tô tat hws jon. People tend not to inflect demonstratives (nor place adverbs). Possessives Possessives are the same when they're used as both adjectives and pronouns and, while possessive adjectives don't need article before, possessive pronouns need it: Possessives derive from the genitive of the personal pronouns, except for the 3rd masculine and neuter singular. Hirs and Heras only have a single form for both singular and plural. Here are some examples: *''Myn katt > Se myn - My cat > Mine'' *''Tyn hwnn > Se tyn - Your dog > Yours'' *''Syn vyf > Se syn - His wife > His'' *''Hirs mann > Se hirs - Her man > Hers'' *''Wr djôr > Tat wr - Our animal > Ours'' *''Jeur frjônd > Se jeur - Your friend > Yours'' *''Heras hjort > Tat heras - Their heart > Theirs'' Plural forms: * Myne kattes > Tê myne - My cats > Mine * Tyne hwnnes > Tê tyne - Your dogs > Yours * Syne vyen > Tê syne - His wifes > His * Hirs menn > Tê hirs - Her men > Hers * Wre djôr > Tê wre - Our animals > Ours * Jeure frynd > Tê jeure - Your friends > Yours * Heras hjort > Tê heras - Their hearts > Theirs Relatives and interrogatives Interrogatives, that are used also to make exclamations, function also as relatives: Ex.: *''Cvâ is he? - Who is he?'' *''Cvat ân sjên hwnn! - What a beautiful dog!'' *''Cvas is se bôc hêr? - Whose is this book?'' *''Cvam hafstw jesagd het? - Whom have you said it to?'' *''Se jon is se vyf cvan y frjôve - That there is the woman whom I love'' Instrumental case cvy corresponds perfectly to English "why", ex.: Cvy hafstw jescân se mêtning têr? - Why have you made that painting? '' Indefinite pronouns and adjectives Indefinites give us incomplete informations, because they don't define the precise quantity or the identity: The indefinite ''jall and ôter have got also a plural form: jallen and ôteren / ôeren / ô'ren. Indefinites can be formed also with the word elles: *''elles cvâ / elscvâ ''- Someone else; *''elles cvat / elscvat'' - Something else; *''tê elles ''- The others. If these indefinites are used as interrogatives, than elles follows the pronouns: *''tjarfstw cvat elles? ''- Do you need something else? *''cnaut hjô cvan elles?'' - Does she know someone else? Adverbs Usually the adverbs in tiôtj are formed by suffixation: many adverbs derive from adjectives, to that the suffix ''-litj'' is added. Some examples: *glâj > glâilitj (happy - happily); *sari > sarilitj (sad - sadly); *grjat > grjallitj (great - greatly); *strong > stronglitj (strong - strongly); *vâc > vâclitj (weak - weakly). Some adverbs have got suppletive forms, ex.: gôj > jarve. Adverbs could have got a comparative form and a superlative one, ex.: *glâilitj - glâilitjar - glâilitjast (happily - happilier - happiliest); *stronglitj - stronglitjar - stronglitjast (strongly - stronglier - strongliest). Two adverbs have an irregular comparative and superlative form: *mitjel - mâr - mâst (much - more - most); *(ân) lit(en) - lass - last (little - less - least). Both grjallitj and mitjel can be used to mean "very", ex.: tw jart grjallitj / mitjel gôj - You are very good. Place adverbs As it has been seen in the chapter about demonstratives, some place adverbs - hêr, têr and jon - inflect to indicate a state, a movement towards or a movement from. Also the adverb cvêr, "where", inflects: The adverb cvêr/cvêder/cvêns can be used also as a relative, ex.: *''Se stôf hêr is se twn, cvêns y cume - This place is the town where I come from'' *''Kêrdyt vas se twn, cvêder y skolde gân - Cardiff was the town where I had to go to'' The adverb cvêr also has the form cverien, but it is used only in the expression elles cverien, "elsewhere". When cvêder and cvêns are used as interrogative adverbs, they can be written separately, ex.: *''Cvêns kimstw? or ''Cvêr kimstw hinnes? - Where do you come from? *''Cvêder gästw?'' or Cvêr gâstw hider? - Where are you going to? Time adverbs The adverb cvonne, "when", can be used both as interrogative and relative. Other time adverbs are: *''nw - now''; *''tann - then''; *yvorn - before; *''eften - after''; *''âlcvon - some times''; *''jeniaclitj - usually''; *jaltyd - always; *''âfre - ever''; *''nâfre - never''; *''elles tyd / elstyd - another time''. Frequency can be expressed also with numerals and ''-nes'' suffix, ex.: *''ân > ânnes'' - once; *''tvein > tveinnes - twice''; *try > trynes - thrice; *''vjôr > vjôrnes - four times''; *''vy > vifnes (!) - five times''; *''sys > sysnes - six times''... Expression such as Eight times a week are translated as Jâtens 'yl â vuke.